Figure 1: Alexa Top Sites[1]

1. The conventional weblog[10]


2. A podcast[11]

3. Video blog

Chris Moyles’ Video Blog[12]

Clearly, the progression of new means of blogging emphasizes contemporary convergence culture in all three aspects of functional, industry and customized consumption.

Blogs, though only a handful, were in existence as early as 1998[13]. Notable growth periods were firstly, 1999, which saw the launch of free softwares or templates and blog hosting web pages including Pyra Lab’s Blogger, enabling quick and easy publishing of blogs[14]; and secondly, 2001, in which there was a surge in the numbers of blogs recounting the experiences of September 11th terrorist attacks[15]. These instances were representative of contemporary convergence culture. The former signified functional convergence which contributes to the simplifying of blogging process as a medium for convergent consumption and production of media content. That is, production of media content on the Internet were no longer limited to conglomerates and experts in html codes. Furthermore, this phenomenon also facilitated the spread of amateur journalism by bloggers. The latter – dramatic increase of blogs following September 11th – was also reminiscent of convergence, in terms of recounting of personal experiences, which in many cases indicated production of media content and information by non-professional journalists that overlapped with current events of the time as well as the convergence of media content and digitization of news reports of the terror attacks.



Journalism

In contemporary convergence culture, the term ‘journalism’ has become increasingly problematic due to the paradoxical nature of current and traditional connotations that it oversees. Chris Frost defines ‘journalism’ as the “exercise by occupation of the right to free expression available to every citizen,”[16] presumably in democratic system of government. Additionally, with reference to Encarta World English Dictionary, a ‘journalist’ refers to a person who takes upon the “profession of gathering, editing and publishing news reports and related articles” for print and electronic media[17]. The former establishes that anyone can exercise ‘journalism’, while the latter fails to exert the explicit responsibility of a professional journalist. Consequently, the perplexity of the concept of journalism implies that in contemporary culture, anyone can, without difficulty, impart journalism through facilitation by media convergence. Without a doubt, the two fore-mentioned definitions demonstrate the weakening of the traditional notion of ‘journalism,’ which was laden with ideals such as Jürgen Habermas’.

The third section of the analysis on the ways in which blogging challenges traditional conceptions of journalism in the context of contemporary convergence culture examines three of such conceptions. In particular, these are: social responsibility, objectivity and truth, and production of media content.


Traditional Conceptions of Journalism: Social Responsibility

The first traditional conception of journalism deals with the social responsibility which journalism is expected to be accountable for[18]. In this instance, the relationship between traditional journalism and social responsibility was influenced by Habermas’ theory of the public sphere and the ideals of the press. That is, the press was a mediator between governing authorities and the public[19]. Therefore, journalists, who constituted the press, possessed a responsibility to “function as an instrument and a forum for the enlightened, rational, critical and unbiased public discussion” regarding matters of common interests[20]. Undoubtedly, although professional journalists in both traditional and contemporary contexts may not fulfill such ideals, the expectation and connotation of credibility and quality of information in journalism persist. However, it is noteworthy that this notion of social responsibility is not reflected in the expectations of most blogs. That is, in relation to blogging, it is the persona of the blogger – whether or not s/he is a public figure – that introduces the expectation of credibility[21]. Personal blogs have little or none of such expectations due to the informal and personal nature of the information that are relayed in respective blog entries[22]. In contrast, blogs produced by public figures such as Andrew Sullivan and Noam Chomsky are anticipated to radiate some levels of credibility[23]. Clearly, the expectation of social responsibility in journalism does not reflect the context of contemporary convergence culture that facilitates the practice of blogging


The traditional conception of social responsibility pinpoints the broadness of the intended audience of journalism – the public. On the contrary, the intended audience of a blog are generally limited to the social networks of the blogger[24]. This is reminiscent of the paradox of contemporary convergence culture, in that, leaving out censorship, a weblog is available to anyone who has access to the Internet, hence, indicating a technical broadcast. However, two reasons suggest narrow-casting. One, the intended audience of blogs comprise of members of the bloggers’ social networks and two, Internet users have to have knowledge of the URL of the weblog and deliberately access the web site. The nature of consumption of the Internet also emphasizes narrow-casting in that consumers are empowered and active in filtering and viewing media content, which in turn, challenges the traditional conception of top-down media institutions[25]. Furthermore, Claire E. Write maintains that audience should not be taken into consideration when one engages in the practice of blogging[26]. This is because of the apprehension that bloggers may experience as a result of the anticipation of reaction from the respective audience. As such, Write argues that consideration of audience response upset the communication of the “essence of a blog,” which encompasses the “thoughts and opinions of the blogger,” representing the blogger’s personal truth[27]. This concept differs and hence, challenges the interactivity that is encouraged within traditional conception of journalism as a forum of discussions regarding matters of common interests. The interactivity of journalism also accentuates the degree of social responsibility of the press.


Traditional Conceptions of Journalism: Objectivity and Truth

The second traditional conception of journalism oversees the issue of 'objectivity and truth' in reporting. Objectivity in reporting is often associated with truth. Objectivity is therefore essentially an ideal of traditional journalism because absolute truth in journalism is unrealistic. James Ettema and Theodore Glasser maintain that truth exists, however, the practice of journalism should not be perceived as “naïve, inspirational conceptions of truth”[28]. Also, according to philosopher Hilary Putnam, truth is influenced by one’s beliefs and experiences and that truth cannot be independent of one’s belief system[29]. This supposition is in line with Michel Foucault’s post-structuralist theory which states that meaning cannot be separated from the system of knowledge that produces it[30]. Times editor John Delane eloquently summarized this ideals of the profession of journalists with regard to being agents of truth:

The duty of the journalist is the same as that of the historian – to seek out the truth, above all things, and to present to his readers not the truth as statecraft would with them to know, but the truth as near as he can attain it[31].

Therefore, although the traditional conception that objectivity and truth are integral to journalism, it should remain construed as an ideal that journalists must relentlessly try to achieve. In contrast, there should also be an acknowledgement that the reality of journalism may differ from its ideals[32]. The practice of blogging challenges this traditional conception of objectivity and absolute truth in reporting. This is because blogging encourages the communication of personal truths. That is, truth relative to the blogger as the blogger interprets meaning in accordance to his/her experiences and belief systems. Also, the articulation of personal truths in blogging is facilitated by the framework of blogging interface in that, there is no editorial control over the content which the blogger decides to publish[33].


Traditional Conceptions of Journalism: Production of Media Content

The last traditional conception of journalism examines the process of production of media content by journalists and bloggers. The information that journalists gather and present to the general public are of significance and relevance due to the public’s common interests and the extension of truths that are relayed. This is because journalists are, in most cases, expected to be primary sources of news and to have insightful knowledge of up to date information. Furthermore, the profession of a journalist requires active and continuous gathering of information[34]. As a result, journalists are perceived to be producers of media content, specifically news. This notion is more emphasized in traditional conception of journalism than in contemporary culture because of the ideals associated with the traditional conceptions. In contemporary culture, there is an acknowledgement that objectivity and absolute truth in reporting are unlikely due to the dynamics of politics, culture and personal beliefs of the journalists[35]. The Society of Professional Journalists addressed this issue by the revision of the Code of Ethics in 1996, which no longer positions objectivity as of a great importance as in the previous code[36]. Therefore, not taking editors into consideration, journalists in contemporary culture do not produce media content entirely. Instead, they mediate the flow of facts and simultaneously enclose the facts with interpretation, expertise and opinions, which they produce. This indicates that journalists in contemporary contexts ‘produces’ media content after previously consuming the first-hand facts.


In relation to peer-to-peer (p2p) or amateur journalism in weblogs, the process of producing media content by contemporary journalists extends both difference and similarity. Firstly, bloggers have access to producing media content on the Internet by exploiting automated templates of blogs and the lack of censorship, which fashion a privilege and a product of contemporary convergence culture. The co-creators of Blogger: Bausch, Haughey and Hourihan also argue that absence of censorship in blogs is a challenge to traditional conception of journalism, which eventually provides the possibility for firsthand accounts of current events[37]. This may be true in the case of personal blogs recounting personal experiences. Nevertheless, with regard to current affairs, it is arguable that bloggers’ understanding and experience of events are very much influenced by messages communicated through mass media in the bloggers' environment. Hence, the information published on blogs are not entirely firsthand and this is a difference to the conception of journalism. Secondly, through the practice of blogging, bloggers contributes to the production of media content which accentuates the blurring of top-down media systems and signifies convergence between media consumers and producers. This is because, bloggers are both producers and consumers of media[38] in that through blogging, they produce the information they had previously consumed. Additionally, bloggers are also consumers of the blogging interface that blog-hosting web pages provide for, while also producing the content on which such web pages rely on for income through advertising [39]. This instance demonstrates that while blogging may challenge some traditional conceptions of journalism, it does not challenge the significance and existence of professional journalism.


Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay has embodied that there are aspects where blogging challenges traditional conceptions of journalism but also that there are instances where the essences of blogging overlap with the previously mentioned conceptions. Firstly, blog in general depicts a departure from traditional conception of journalism in terms of social responsibility due to the difference in the intended audience of blogs and the press. Secondly, both of the practice of blogging and journalism encourage the communication of truths and this indicates a similarity in the two genres. Nevertheless, it is the nature of truths that differ as journalism ideals require the extension of general truth, while blogging facilitates personal truth and relativism. Thirdly, there is also a similarity in contemporary journalism and blogging in terms of production of media content in that both journalists and bloggers engage in convergent consumption and production. However, this notion challenges traditional conception of journalism where journalists are perceived to be producers of news. It is indisputable that despite the perceived nihilism in the practice of blogging, there is a possibility that its growing popularity will produce greater social significance in the later stages.


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